Millions of people across Africa are being shut out of basic public services as governments roll out biometric digital identification systems that require citizens to hand over sensitive personal and biometric data, according to new research published on Thursday.
The systems, presented by many governments as tools to streamline service delivery and curb fraud, are increasingly being used as mandatory gateways to rights such as voting, healthcare, education and social protection payments. But the report warns that the shift is deepening inequality and creating new layers of exclusion for already marginalised communities.
The report, Biometric Digital-ID in Africa: Progress and Challenges to Date – Ten Country Case Studies, includes detailed assessments of evolving ID systems in Botswana, Namibia, Malawi, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Ethiopia, Egypt and Tunisia. The studies were authored by African researchers and coordinated by the African Digital Rights Network in partnership with Paradigm Initiative.
The findings, drawn from a study by the African Digital Rights Network and published by the UK-based Institute of Development Studies (IDS), offer one of the most extensive reviews of digital-ID programmes in Africa to date. The research covers ten countries and highlights widespread gaps in legal safeguards, data-protection measures and oversight mechanisms as governments and technology vendors accelerate adoption of biometric systems.
The report says many people with disabilities, low literacy levels or limited financial means are unable to navigate the costs and complexity of registering for the new IDs. Registration processes often rely on access to mobile phones, paid mobile data or electricity for charging — resources that are still out of reach for millions on the continent.
Some citizens also shun enrolment altogether due to mistrust of government and fears of data breaches. Biometric IDs typically rely on fingerprint and iris scans or facial recognition, raising concerns about surveillance and potential misuse of personal records.
“Worryingly, fundamental human rights, like education, healthcare and the right to vote are rapidly becoming conditional on enrolment in biometric digital-ID systems,” said Dr Tony Roberts, Research Fellow at the Institute of Development Studies and co-editor of the report.
“While some may benefit from the convenience of digital-ID systems to access essential services, it is locking out millions of citizens who cannot enrol in biometric digital-ID systems, particularly those with disabilities. Some people with visual impairments have to pay people to help them use their digital-ID on mobile phones to access their social protection payments.”
According to the authors, installation costs for biometric digital-ID systems across Africa exceed US$1 billion, but many of the programmes lack the legal and institutional protections needed to prevent abuse. The report flags weak data-privacy laws, insufficient cybersecurity safeguards and limited avenues for citizens to seek redress in cases of errors, system failures or breaches.
In several countries, the researchers found evidence of large-scale data leaks and instances where personal data was allegedly used to track critics of ruling parties or opposition figures — factors that have fuelled public suspicion and resistance to enrolment.
“Many citizens do not want to enrol for a biometric digital-ID because they have good reason not to trust their governments with their biometrics and personal information,” said ‘Gbenga Sesan, Executive Director of Paradigm Initiative and co-editor of the report. “We have found examples of massive data breaches and in some countries personal data used to surveil and target peaceful critics of the government and opposition leaders.
“The interests, rights and freedoms of all Africans, but especially those most directly at risk of exclusion and disadvantage, must be central to any biometric digital-ID systems.”
Public backlash has already led to delays and complications in several national rollouts, the researchers noted. Although governments argue that digital-ID systems will help modernise bureaucracy and expand access to public services, the report questions why heavily funded biometric systems are being introduced in places where citizens have not demanded them.
The authors warn that without stronger legal protections, transparent governance and meaningful citizen participation in system design, digital-ID projects risk undermining the very development goals they are meant to advance.
They recommend that governments prioritise comprehensive legislation on data protection, digital security and rights safeguards before expanding biometric systems. They also urge policymakers to avoid top-down deployment and instead consult widely to ensure digital-ID benefits are shared fairly.